For centuries, gender has been construed as the mere dichotomies of two antitheses, i.e., femininity and masculinity. However, the scholarly investigation has allowed new enlightenment that gender is not just a social identity; it is a powerful determinant of health that not only shapes access to care and the quality of treatment but also outcomes worldwide. Despite remarkable advances in medical technology, women remain disproportionally misdiagnosed, stigmatized even after experiencing sexual assaults, and largely dismissed or ignored in clinical settings, suggesting that gender, not progress, still defines who benefits from modern medicine. According to a 2024 Nature Analysis, only five percent of global R & D funding was directed toward women’s health research, with “just 1% of healthcare research and innovation is invested in female-specific conditions beyond oncology.” The finding stunned the global medical community, laying bare the systemic neglect of women’s health and underscoring how patriarchal structures continue to marginalize physiological conditions that are specific women. A 2025 Medichecks survey revealed that 93 percent of women reported feeling “palmed off” when seeking medical advice from their general practitioners, often forced to make repeated visits before their concerns were taken seriously. Not only does gender significantly contribute to public health inequities by shaping access to healthcare, but it also influences health-seeking behavior and intersects with social determinants such as poverty. This paper shall first examine how women are disproportionately disadvantaged in healthcare, leading to persistently high maternal mortality rates, widespread period poverty, inadequate research and clinical trials on women-related diseases, and delayed treatment following gender-based violence, among other inequities. Indeed, women have endured systemic discrimination as a result of deeply entrenched social norms and economic disparities. Finally, this paper shall propose a range of solutions to address these disparities, demonstrating that true equity in healthcare requires both structural reforms and targeted, gender-sensitive interventions.
Maternal Mortality Rate (MMR) in Sub-Saharan Africa
The United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund (UNICEF) defines “maternal mortality” as “deaths due to complications due to pregnancy and childbirth.” Despite the contemporary’s increasingly advanced medical technology, an un-negligible number of women still die from childbirth. World Health Organization (WHO) reports in 2023 that the global MMR in 2023 was “197 per 100,000 live birth.” In juxtaposition, the MMR in Sub-Saharan Africa more than doubles the worldwide average, estimated as “448 women die per 100,000 live births,” concluding that the abnormally high MMR is both due to the negligence to women’s health as well as their socioeconomic status—women are historically disproportionally doomed to poverty due to their inability to earn sustainable income in societies that have been decidedly, and wretchedly patriarchal, demonstrating the intersectionality between gender and socioeconomic barriers both of which contribute to health care inequality. Kimberlé Crenshaw’s foundational concept of intersectionality explores how overlapping identities—such as gender, class, and race—compound disadvantage, noting that material inequalities like the feminization of poverty are deepened when class and race intersect with gender. Thus, it is perhaps unsurprising that Sub-Saharan Africa, where women are the poorest and the least respected, has the highest MMR.
Gender-Based Violence (GBV)
Gender bias is deeply entrenched not only in maternal mortality but also in one of humanity’s gravest injustices—gender-based violence—which inflicts profound psychological and physical trauma on women. According to PubMed Central, less than five percent of sexual assaults are reported to law enforcement in North America—highlighting the severe underreporting of this crime.
Elsewhere, gender-based violence is shown to be universally underreported, proving that
sexual assault remains one of the most underreported crimes worldwide. The analyses of world average statistics estimate that gender-based violence perpetrated against women is generally unreported, especially when the perpetrator is known to the victim.
Research indicates that the stigma surrounding sexual assault survivors is a principal factor contributing to the chronic underreporting of gender-based violence. Survivors are often subjected to skepticism, social reproach, and insinuations of complicity, a phenomenon widely termed “secondary victimization.”
As a result of the social stigmas attached to sexual assault, women often suffer physically from delayed treatment, including untreated injuries, increased risk of sexually transmitted infections, complications from unintended pregnancies, and long-term reproductive health issues.
Most physical consequences of sexual assault can still be treated; however, the same cannot be said of the psychological trauma endured by survivors. The inability to seek medical help or confide in others often compounds their suffering, leading to severe depression and, in some cases, suicide. Much research confirms the above, stating that barriers to seeking medical care or disclosing the assault frequently intensify survivors’ psychological distress, contributing to heightened risks of major depressive disorder and suicidality. RAND Corporation’s finding confirms that “perceptions of stigma and shame, along with concerns about how others (including leaders or providers) might view them,” are significant contributors to their “symptoms of PTSD, depression, and suicidal thoughts or self-harm.”
Period Poverty
Like GBV, period poverty is perhaps one of the most prominent global phenomena of gender inequality in healthcare. American University in Washington D.C. reports that “around 500 million menstruating individuals globally lack access to safe menstrual products or facilities.” The multifaceted barriers—social stigma, education gaps, and health infrastructure deficiencies—account for period poverty, further accentuating gender inequality in global health care. Scarcity of feminine hygiene products underscores the pervasive global discrimination against women and reflects the enduring prevalence of gender inequality. Worldwide volatility, uncertainty, complexity, and ambiguity (VUCA) contribute to period poverty, culminating in sanitary products’ affordability and inaccessibility. Beyond circumstantial prejudice, the social stigma surrounding menstruation further undermines women’s health, rendering their lives especially challenging for those in developing nations. In the Gambia, girls skip school for five days every month not only due to the largely unaffordable menstrual products, but also because menstruation is perceived as something sordid that must be concealed. Research conducted on Nakivale refugee settlement in Uganda showed that among 260 girl participants, 18 percent used rags that are not sanitized properly, which often results in infections and, in severe cases, even deaths.
Gender Bias in Clinical Trials and Treatment
Apart from period poverty, gender inequality is especially prominent in the scarcity of clinical research and trials on women-specific illnesses. Indeed, it is the inadequacy of scientific research that often contributes to the frequent misdiagnosis of cardiac-related symptoms in women. The American Journal of Managed Care (AJMC) confirms that “[women’s] under‑representation in cardiovascular clinical trials has created a persistent knowledge deficit in recognizing sex‑based differences in heart disease.” Unsurprisingly, British Heart Foundation had found that women with STEMI, a type of heart disease particularly susceptible to women, had 59 percent greater chance of misdiagnosis than cardiovascular diseases specific to men. It is clear that the under-representation of women in cardiovascular clinical trials has created a critical knowledge gap in understanding women’s health conditions and physiological symptoms, gaps that lead not only to frequent misdiagnoses, but also to alarming mortality rates among women.
Intersectionality: When Gender Interacts with Other Vulnerabilities
Historically, scholars have overlooked the role of intersectionality; however, there is growing recognition that the intersecting influences of gender, race, and class, or socioeconomic status, shape the lived experiences of individuals. As noted in Intersectionality in Quantitative Research: A Systematic Review, the concept “is a theoretical framework rooted in the premise that human experience is jointly shaped by multiple social positions.” Various research indicates that a woman faces challenges due to the intersectionality of gender, ethnicity, and socioeconomic factors. Also known as triple oppression (or double jeopardy), intersectionality highlights how racism, sexism, and classism can play off each other in ways that intensify the experience of marginalization. The term “triple oppression” was articulated and popularized by Claudia Jones, a Black socialist feminist and activist, who framed the concept as the interconnected, inseparable experiences of sexism, racism, and classism that Black women face and argued that overcoming them requires addressing all three simultaneously. A 2020 qualitative study examined how African American women facing triple oppression (race, gender, and class) narratively express their experiences through quilting in the novel How to Make an American Quilt. The study underscores that these forms of oppression are interlinked and cannot be effectively addressed in isolation. In How to Make an American Quilt, Anna Neale is a mixed-race young woman (African American and white) raised by her aunt Pauline, a domestic worker. Her mulatto identity places her on the margins of both Black and white communities at a time when such racial ambiguity was heavily stigmatized. Branded by illegitimacy and burdened by extreme poverty, Anna faces intensified prejudice due to her skin color, which, when combined with discrimination tied to her gender and socioeconomic class, creates a compounded and deeply entrenched marginalization. In How to Make an American Quilt, Anna Neale’s marginalization runs deep: her mixed-race identity, poverty, and gender render her virtually invisible in society. Anna’s victimization becomes evident when she remarks, “I learned to speak with needle and thread long before society finally ‘gave’ me a voice.”
Solutions and Policy Recommendations
The severity of gender inequality in global medical healthcare must be addressed. On one hand, gender responsive health systems are necessary for improving gender consciousness throughout the society; on the other hand, legal and structural reforms are also warranted to ensure better protection for maternal and related services. First of all, government authorities need to create gender-responsive health systems. To begin with, gender-sensitivity needs to be integrated into medical curricula to promote equality in both language, visualization, and presentation. Secondly, healthcare workers need to be trained to identify and challenge biases. To be specific, critical reflection, perspective-taking, counter-stereotyping, and skills and knowledge-building should be incorporated in professional training to ameliorate biases. Thirdly, inclusive data collection to ensure equal representation for women. This reform must encompass the establishment of comprehensive laws that guarantee the protection of reproductive rights, while also addressing disparities in maternal and sexual health services. The development of supportive policies that promote inclusivity and diversity in healthcare settings is critical, ensuring that all individuals, regardless of gender or sexual orientation, receive respectful and competent care.
Additionally, healthcare institutions must cultivate an environment that encourages diversity, inclusion, and sensitivity to the needs of marginalized groups. Such inclusivity can be achieved by implementing organizational policies that support the recruitment, retention, and promotion of diverse healthcare professionals, while also fostering a culture of respect and understanding.
Finally, partnerships with civil society organizations and advocacy groups are essential to raising awareness, challenging societal norms, and holding institutions accountable for providing equitable healthcare services. By working collectively, governments, healthcare providers, and civil society can contribute to a more inclusive and just healthcare system.
In conclusion, addressing gender and equity in healthcare requires a multifaceted approach. By focusing on gender-responsive health systems, legal reforms, implicit bias training, inclusive data collection, and fostering an inclusive healthcare environment, we can ensure that healthcare services meet the needs of all individuals, promoting health equity and social justice for humanity.
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